Structural Relationships: Conjunctions and Fragments

Before we can connect ideas, we must understand the fundamental units of thought in the English language. Sentences are built from clauses.

Independent vs. Dependent Clauses

Every clause shares two foundational elements: an independent clause must contain a subject, and an independent clause must contain a working verb. Similarly, a dependent clause must contain a subject, and a dependent clause must contain a working verb.

The divergence between the two lies in their ability to bear structural weight alone.

• An independent clause expresses a complete thought. Because it is structurally complete, it can stand alone as a fully grammatical sentence.
• Conversely, a dependent clause does not express a complete thought. Even with its subject and verb, a word at the beginning of the clause (which we will explore shortly) leaves the idea suspended. Therefore, a dependent clause cannot stand alone as a grammatical sentence.

Recognizing and Repairing Fragments

When the physics of a clause breaks down, the result is a structural failure known as a sentence fragment. A sentence fragment is an incomplete sentence incorrectly punctuated as a complete thought.

This error typically manifests in three ways:

1. A sentence fragment occurs when a punctuated sentence lacks a main subject. (Example: Walked to the cafeteria to grade papers.)
2. A sentence fragment occurs when a punctuated sentence lacks a main verb. (Example: The principal, carrying a stack of new textbooks.)
3. A sentence fragment occurs when a dependent clause is punctuated as a standalone sentence. (Example: Because the fire alarm rang.)

As an educator, you will constantly edit your own materials and those of your students. You have three structural remedies at your disposal to repair a fragment:

• A writer can correct a sentence fragment by supplying the missing subject. (I walked to the cafeteria to grade papers.)
• A writer can correct a sentence fragment by supplying the missing verb. (The principal was carrying a stack of new textbooks.)
• A writer can correct a sentence fragment by attaching the fragment to an adjacent independent clause. (The students evacuated immediately because the fire alarm rang.)

When we have perfectly formed thoughts that belong together, we use conjunctions to join them. The simplest joints are coordinating conjunctions.

A coordinating conjunction joins words of equal grammatical rank, joins phrases of equal grammatical rank, and joins clauses of equal grammatical rank. By "equal rank," we mean nouns to nouns, prepositional phrases to prepositional phrases, or independent clauses to independent clauses.

The seven coordinating conjunctions in English are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so.

Mnemonic Device: The acronym FANBOYS is a mnemonic device used to remember the seven coordinating conjunctions. (For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So)

The Mechanics of the Comma with FANBOYS

The presence of a coordinating conjunction dictates specific punctuation rules based on what exactly is being joined. This is a highly tested area on the Praxis Core.

• A comma must precede a coordinating conjunction when the conjunction connects two independent clauses.
  • Correct: The lesson plan was meticulously detailed**, but** the students were completely unengaged. (Two complete thoughts joined).
• A comma must not precede a coordinating conjunction when the conjunction connects two items in a compound subject.
  • Correct: The math teacher and the science teacher collaborated on the project. (No comma before and).
• A comma must not precede a coordinating conjunction when the conjunction connects two verbs in a compound predicate.
  • Correct: The student finished the exam and quietly closed his laptop. (No comma before and; "quietly closed his laptop" is missing a subject, making it a compound predicate, not an independent clause).

While coordinating conjunctions link equals, subordinating conjunctions create a hierarchy of ideas.

Mechanically, a subordinating conjunction transforms an independent clause into a dependent clause. If you take the independent clause "The bell rang" and add a subordinator to the front, you get "When the bell rang." The thought is no longer complete; it demands resolution.

Common subordinating conjunctions include after, although, because, before, if, since, unless, until, when, and while.

These conjunctions do heavy semantic lifting. Depending on the word chosen:

• A subordinating conjunction can establish a relationship of time between two clauses (before, after, when, until, while).
• A subordinating conjunction can establish a relationship of cause and effect between two clauses (because, since).
• A subordinating conjunction can establish a conditional relationship between two clauses (if, unless, although).

Subordinators and Commas

Punctuation with subordinating conjunctions depends entirely on the placement of the dependent clause relative to the independent clause.

• A sentence beginning with a subordinating conjunction requires a comma immediately after the dependent clause.
  • Example: Because the school budget was cut**,** the art program was suspended.
• A sentence generally does not require a comma when a dependent clause directly follows an independent clause.
  • Example: The art program was suspended because the school budget was cut.

Some joints require a paired mechanism to work. Correlative conjunctions always appear in specific pairs within a sentence.

Common correlative conjunction pairs include either/or, neither/nor, both/and, whether/or, and not only/but also.

To prevent structural failure, correlative conjunctions must connect items possessing the same grammatical structure to maintain parallelism. If "not only" precedes a verb phrase, "but also" must precede a verb phrase.

• Faulty: The teacher not only graded the tests but also was calling the parents.
• Repaired: The teacher not only graded the tests but also called the parents.

Correlative Conjunctions and Verb Agreement

When correlative conjunctions act as the subject of a sentence, the Praxis Core will test your ability to conjugate the main verb correctly.

• When subjects are joined by the correlative conjunction either/or, the main verb must agree with the subject closest to the verb.
  • Example: Either the principal or the teachers are monitoring the hallway. (Plural teachers dictates the plural verb are).
  • Example: Either the teachers or the principal is monitoring the hallway. (Singular principal dictates the singular verb is).
• When subjects are joined by the correlative conjunction neither/nor, the main verb must agree with the subject closest to the verb.
  • Example: Neither the students nor the instructor understands the new software.
• Subjects joined by the correlative conjunction pair both/and always take a plural verb.
  • Example: Both the laptop and the projector are broken.

When a writer generates too much forward momentum and neglects the proper joints, a run-on occurs. A run-on sentence occurs when two independent clauses are joined without appropriate punctuation.

Run-ons manifest in two distinct forms:

1. A fused sentence is a run-on sentence containing absolutely no punctuation between two independent clauses.
   • Example: The semester is ending the students are exhausted.
2. A comma splice is a run-on error occurring when two independent clauses are joined by a comma without a coordinating conjunction.
   • Example: The semester is ending**,** the students are exhausted.

The Illusion of Safety: Conjunctive Adverbs

Many writers attempt to fix comma splices by inserting sophisticated transition words, completely misunderstanding the grammatical weight of those words.

Common conjunctive adverbs include however, therefore, moreover, nevertheless, and consequently.

It is vital to understand that a conjunctive adverb is not a coordinating conjunction. Therefore, a conjunctive adverb cannot grammatically link two independent clauses with only a comma. In fact, using a comma and a conjunctive adverb to link two independent clauses creates a comma splice.

• Error (Comma Splice): The exam was difficult**, however,** most students passed.

To use a conjunctive adverb correctly between two independent clauses, a stronger piece of punctuation is required. A semicolon must precede a conjunctive adverb when linking two independent clauses.

• Correct: The exam was difficult**; however,** most students passed.

Four Strategies to Repair Run-On Sentences

When you spot a run-on or a comma splice—whether in your Praxis exam prompts, your essay drafting, or a student's rough draft—you have four definitive engineering solutions to repair the structural failure.

1. A writer can correct a run-on sentence by placing a period between the independent clauses. (Best for keeping ideas distinct and easily readable).
   • Repaired: The semester is ending. The students are exhausted.
2. A writer can correct a run-on sentence by placing a semicolon between the independent clauses. (Best when the two clauses are closely related and of equal importance).
   • Repaired: The semester is ending; the students are exhausted.
3. A writer can correct a run-on sentence by joining the independent clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction. (The FANBOYS fix).
   • Repaired: The semester is ending**, and** the students are exhausted.
4. A writer can correct a run-on sentence by converting one independent clause into a dependent clause using a subordinating conjunction. (Best for establishing hierarchy, cause/effect, or time).
   • Repaired: Because the semester is ending**,** the students are exhausted.

As an educator, writing is one of your primary mechanisms of instruction. A misunderstood sentence on an assignment sheet can derail a lesson for thirty students at once. By mastering clauses, conjunctions, and structural repair, you eliminate ambiguity and ensure your message spans the gap between your mind and your audience with absolute integrity.

Source: Comedic Wet Cat Food sign in an ASDA supermarket by Springnuts, CC BY-SA 4.0.